The July-August 2006 conflict had a significant impact on Lebanon, and many environmental issues remain to be addressed. The reconstruction period provides an opportunity to develop appropriate environmental plans and to enhance the country's capacity towards sustainable use of its natural resources, in terms of both the environmental impacts of the conflict and preexisting concerns. The Ministry of Environment should play a central role in the implementation of the recommendations below, but will need the support and cooperation of other ministries and government departments. In addition, sustained technical and financial assistance from the international community is required.
UNEP's recommendations are divided into:i) Institutional recommendations focused on strengthening environmental management generally, and ii) sectoral recommendations, which seek to address the problems identified in specific areas of concern.
Institutional recommendations
1. Coordination mechanism for environmental emergency response:
In the recent conflict, the absence of an effective coordination mechanism led to a fragmented response and an inability to coordinate the internal response and external assistance. It is therefore recommended that the Ministry of Environment take the lead in establishing a National Emergency Preparedness and Response Infrastructure and Coordination Mechanism for environmental emergency response, with the assistance of the international community, to ensure an effective response to environmental emergencies, whether related to conflicts, man-made or natural disasters.
2. Institutional strengthening:
The Ministry of Environment should be strengthened as an institution, especially in terms of its enforcement capacity. Key areas that need to be reinforced are water quality guidelines, waste management, environmental monitoring and environmental inspections.
3. Environmental information:
It is recommended that Lebanon establish national monitoring plans in key environmental sectors such as air, water, forestry and marine resources to inform policy-making. The information gathered could be made available to interested parties, including non-governmental organizations and the general public, at an environmental resource centre accessible to the public and through appropriate websites.
Sectoral recommendations
I. Solid and hazardous waste
Due to the fact that infrastructure was damaged during the conflict, management of solid waste is one of the key environmental issues associated with the conflict.
Demolition rubble:
The conflict generated vast amounts of demolition rubble. The safe handling of the debris is one of the major challenges of the recovery process. Existing dump sites have become overloaded with conflict-related demolition rubble, exacerbating existing problems with solid waste management, and numerous additional dump sites have been created hastily and in sometimes inappropriate locations to cope with the excess debris.
Hazardous healthcare waste:
A sharp increase in hazardous healthcare waste has been experienced as a result of conflict-related deaths and injuries. This waste has been mixed into the normal waste stream and is ending up in routine dump sites, where it constitutes a serious risk to the health and safety of site workers and the general public.
Oil clean-up waste:
Several hundred cubic metres of oil-contaminated waste materials that have been collected during the clean-up operations of the oil spill from the Jiyeh power plant require appropriate disposal.
Contaminated soil:
Thousands of cubic metres of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil at a number of sites, such as petrol stations and industrial facilities, potentially require treatment and/or appropriate disposal.
Recommendations:
It is recommended that the Ministry of Environment, in cooperation with the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, take the lead in developing and implementing guidelines on the safe handling and environmentally sustainable disposal and reuse of demolition debris. This should be supplemented with the identification of central areas for processing. In addition, international technical assistance and donor support should be mobilized to provide suitable processing equipment (e.g. mobile crushers) to clusters of municipalities.
There are currently no environmentally acceptable options within Lebanon for the disposal of oily solid waste. It is recommended that the Ministry of Environment lead the mobilization of international technical assistance and donor support to establish environmentally acceptable disposal solutions (e.g. biological remediation, incineration at cement furnaces with control measures, or use of mobile incinerators).
Measures should be implemented at the national level to enhance the coping ability of waste management systems. UNEP recommends that the Ministry of Environment be assigned the responsibility of developing priorities, guidelines and legislation to phase out open dump sites and construct sanitary landfill sites based on transparent contracting procedures. The involvement of municipalities should be encouraged, using the Zahleh landfill site as a model, and private sector services should be used where appropriate. Inter-municipal agreements could help solve waste management problems through costsharing and economies of scale.
National procedures should be developed to ensure that hazardous healthcare waste is separately stored and disposed of with appropriate technology. This would involve investment in facilities such as autoclaves or a central incinerator and the training of healthcare staff. The Ministry of Environment would be the appropriate body to develop such procedures, in coordination with the Ministry of Public Health.
Staff working with debris at disposal sites should be provided with adequate training and equipment to ensure that their health, safety and security are protected according to best international practice. The most significant concern is exposure to excessive levels of dust at various sites.
With appropriate training and working methods, local personnel could undertake the collection of asbestos cement debris, which would need to be suitably contained, transported and disposed of at a landfill site able to deal with such waste. Asbestos cement roof sheets in good condition should be left in place until the end of the building's life, when they can be removed and appropriately disposed of.
II. Industrial contamination, soil and fresh water resources
A total of 36 potentially contaminated sites were visited, which were representative of a range of land uses, including: agricultural, commercial, industrial, infrastructure and power generation. Given that the collection of samples was carried out before the onset of the rainy season (November - April), the mobilization of contaminants was fairly localized. The condition of Lebanon's fresh water resources should therefore be monitored for longer-term conflict-related consequences. UNEP found the following:
Soil contamination:
The Jiyeh power plant, Beirut airport fuel storage tanks, and the two petrol stations visited showed varying degrees of hydrocarbon contamination. Other industrial sites - such as the Al Arz textile factory (Zahleh), Lamartine Food Industry (Zahleh) and the Ghabris detergent factory
(Tyre) - demonstrated relatively minor or localized levels of contamination. In addition, a number of sites, including the Transmed industrial facility (Beirut), the Lamartine Food Industry and the Lebanese Company for Carton Mince & Industry (Beirut) were found to have the potential to cause future contamination due to residual pollutants remaining on site.
Water pollution:
Localized contamination of surface and groundwater has occurred in certain industrial pollution 'hotspots', such as the Choueifat industrial area and the Ghabris detergent factory in Tyre, where the bombing caused chemicals to be released into soil and water sources. In general, the risk of contamination of water sources is considered to be low, though this may change once rain, run-off, flushing and percolation commence.
Supply and wastewater networks:
Prior to the conflict, the water supply and wastewater networks were undergoing rehabilitation throughout Lebanon. These networks were extensively damaged in the conflict and hence present a risk of groundwater contamination and a potential public health hazard. Poor wastewater management constitutes a major chronic environmental stress factor, which needs to be addressed in a comprehensive manner.
Recommendations:
Hydrocarbon-contaminated sites - including the Jiyeh power plant, Beirut airport fuel storage tanks, Ebl Saqi asphalt plant and the Saida petrol station - should be investigated further to determine the exact extent and magnitude of the contamination. Contaminated soil should be removed for treatment.
It is recommended that the Ministries of Environment and Industry remove sources of toxic pollutants that could impair surface and groundwater quality and protect wells in heavily contaminated zones such as the Choueifat industrial area and the Ghabris detergent factory. Ash in the Transmed site (Choueifat) and stockpiled chemicals at the Maliban glass factory (Zahleh) should also be removed as a matter of priority. In addition, the possibility of an industrial wastewater treatment plant for the Choueifat area should be investigated.
The level of contamination from damaged wastewater networks should be assessed in detail. In this regard, it is suggested that the Ministry of Environment and other relevant ministries such as Public Health and Energy and Water, as well as municipalities, identify and address actual and potential contamination sources representing a risk for public health and the environment. The reconstruction period could, with the support of the international community, be used to assess the feasibility and cost of implementing wastewater treatment technologies (municipal and industrial) in Lebanon's cities and towns.
A catchment-wide plan to control the release of pollutants into the Ghadir stream should be developed, as the stream is severely contaminated and constitutes a major source of land-based marine pollution.
It is suggested that the Ministry of Energy and Water, Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Public Health collaborate to establish a national programme to monitor the physical, chemical and biological aspects of ambient quality of surface and groundwater on a continuous basis, as well as a discharge inspection programme. This could be combined with the World Health Organization's (WHO) plan to help establish a national drinking water quality surveillance system.
The Ghadir is one of the most polluted watercourses in Lebanon and a principle source of land-based marine pollution. There is an urgent need to introduce an integrated water resources management (IWRM) approach, as a pilot project, to remediate the pollution problem in a comprehensive manner at basin scale.
In the long term, an integrated water resources management plan needs to be developed to ensure that the water resources of the upper Jordan River are used in a sustainable manner.
III. Weapons used
The UNEP assessment focused on the use of weapons with potential environmental impacts, including the possible use of weapons containing depleted uranium (DU). The weapons assessment team visited 32 sites, concentrating particularly on southern Lebanon, and reached the following conclusions:
Depleted uranium:
Using highly sensitive equipment, the UNEP weapons team visited sites showing the highest probability of having been attacked with deep-penetrating (potentially DU-containing) munitions. The team also visited sites rumoured to have been attacked with DU-containing weapons, including a site at Khiam. Samples were analysed by a leading Swiss governmental laboratory in the field of radiation. The results show no evidence of the use of weapons containing DU, natural uranium or any other uranium isotope composition.
Cluster bombs:
At 13 November 2006, UNMACC (South Lebanon) had identified 813 cluster bomb strike locations and estimates that up to one million unexploded cluster bombs may be on the ground in Lebanon. Between the end of the conflict and 11 November, 136 people were injured and 23 killed by cluster bombs. UNEP encountered unexploded cluster bombs throughout its site visits in southern Lebanon. These munitions are considered to pose a grave risk to the Lebanese population and are a serious impediment to post-conflict recovery and reconstruction efforts. In addition, agricultural fields are heavily contaminated by cluster bombs, affecting the livelihoods of populations in those areas.
Fires:
The conflict led to the outbreak of fires and the loss of economically valuable tree species in southern Lebanon, and impaired the Government's fledgling reforestation programme.
White phosphorus:
UNEP found evidence of the use of white phosphorus-containing munitions. Their use has been confirmed by the Israeli Defense Forces.
Recommendations:
UNEP endorses the recommendation of the UN Human Rights Council's Special Rapporteurs that the clearance of cluster bombs from agricultural fields should be accelerated with the assistance of bilateral and multilateral donors, and that the Government of Israel should provide full details of its use of cluster munitions to facilitate the destruction of unexploded ordnance and the clearing of affected areas.
The environmental impact of white phosphorus is limited to fires at the time of impact. However, residents and unexploded ordnance destruction teams should be alerted to its presence and take the necessary safety precautions.
The reactivation of the Lebanese government's reforestation programme should be supported and burnt areas should be rehabilitated.
IV. Air pollution
Although air quality was not monitored during the conflict, UNEP compiled information from smear samples in areas that had been heavily bombed, as well as soil samples from the vicinity of the Jiyeh power plant, where bombing-related air pollutants may have been deposited. The main findings are:
Sample results:
Smear samples in almost all locations show the presence of heavy metals, which could result in long-term health problems if inhaled. Soil samples around the Jiyeh power plant indicate the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), a carcinogenic product generated by the incomplete burning of hydrocarbons.
Potential long-term health impacts:
The implication of the above findings is that the population around heavily bombed sites has been exposed to air pollutants, possibly resulting in long-term health consequences.
Recommendations:
It is recommended that a national health registry of people who may have been exposed to air pollution during the conflict be established. Their health status should be monitored to identify any adverse, long-term health effects.
Rain and snow should be monitored during the coming seasons to determine whether some pollutants return to the ground during precipitation.
Air quality regulations and monitoring systems should be established in Lebanon.
V. Marine and Coastal Environment
The oil spill caused by the bombing of the Jiyeh power plant contaminated the coastline and had a severe impact on coastal communities. The ongoing conflict impaired local and international capacities to respond to the spill. Nevertheless, a massive containment and clean-up operation was launched in the weeks following the conflict. Lebanese civil society and governmental, regional, and international organizations provided technical and financial assistance, equipment and manpower. By the autumn of 2006 an estimated 600 m³ of liquid oil and 1,000 m³ of oil-contaminated sand, pebbles and debris had been collected. The cleanup is still ongoing. The UNEP team, at the time of assessment, found the following:
Sunken oil:
Due the high viscosity and specific gravity of the fuel oil used at Jiyeh, a substantial part of the oil that was released into the sea sank to the sea bottom in the immediate vicinity of the power plant, most likely smothering the biota in the sediment. The risk of its remobilization will remain unless the oil is fully extracted.
Coastline contamination:
As a result of prevailing wind conditions and sea currents, most of the oil that did not sink was pushed against the coast and northwards, impacting marinas, wharfs, beaches, property and archeologically important sites (including Byblos).
PAH in seabed sediment:
The concentrations of PAH in seabed sediment and in molluscs beyond the immediate vicinity of the power plant were similar to what is expected in coastal areas under the influence of urban zones, industry and transport, with the spill adding marginally to these background concentrations.
Hydrocarbons in oysters:
The levels of petroleum hydrocarbons in the tissue of oysters beyond the immediate vicinity of the power plant were in an expected range of concentration for areas under anthropogenic influence.
Hydrocarbons in fish:
The concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons in the samples of fish tissue were found to be below or slightly above the detection limit. No difference was detected between the petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in fish from different areas or in species from different trophic levels. The levels are low and probably indicate the background concentrations of hydrocarbons for fish in the eastern Mediterranean. Likewise, the PAH levels of fish were found to be normal for that area.
Water column:
At the time of investigation, oil was no longer detected in the water column. However, the potential for resuspension remains as long as the oil is present on the seabed.
Recommendations:
The sunken oil from the immediate vicinity of Jiyeh should be extracted.
During clean-up operations, the remobilization of oil in sediment, on beaches and stuck to surfaces should be avoided. The use of steam and high pressure water should therefore be limited to boats, docks, jetties and other infrastructure.
Appropriate health and safety practices should be followed during clean-up operations. Workers should wear appropriate protective clothing and use equipment.
The National Oil Spill Contingency Plan should be reviewed based on the experience of the Jiyeh oil spill and lessons learned should be incorporated.
It is recommended that the Ministry of Environment, with the support of international donors, monitor concentrations of pollutants and biological parameters on a routine basis to track the recovery of impacted sites and the general health of the environment. The data provided in this report could, together with existing data, form a baseline for future monitoring of coastal and marine sediment and biota.
In view of the low biodiversity levels and general eutrophication of extensive areas, the discharge of untreated sewage, leachate and industrial effluent into the marine environment and over-fishing should be addressed urgently at the national and regional levels.