The Republic of South Sudan is the youngest country on Earth. It got its independence in July 2011.
South Sudan has an area of approximately 640,000 km2. It is situated in the Nile river catchment area, which flows into a low and vast flood plain covering much of South Sudan. Altitudes of lands vary from 400m to 3,000m above sea level.
According to the official census, the total population of the new country was estimated at 8,260,490 in 2008. More than 90% of the population lives in rural areas. The dominant land use in terms of land occupation is livestock keeping, which is practiced almost all over the country, but particularly in dryer areas. Livestock is the main economic resource of the country, the main food and income source of majority of families.
Most of South Sudan has a semi-humid climate, with annual rainfall ranging from 200mm in south-east to 1200-2200mm in the equatorial forests zone in south-west. In the northern dry regions of the country rainfall varies between 700 to 1300mm. Mean annual average temperatures vary from 26 to 32oC. The rainy season is from April to December which causes flooding in the flood-plains between Nile and Pibor rivers. In this period the earthen roads get muddy conditions, which impair the vehicular transportation. Road transport in the rural areas is possible only in the dry season, which extends from December to end of April or early May. Virtually no rain falls in this dry period in most areas of the country.
In rural areas the available building materials are clay (soil), wood and grasses, by which the traditional houses (huts) are constructed. No glass and other types of building materials are used.
90% of the country is covered with natural and savanna forests with a variable tree density: generally high in the south-west and highest mountains, and low in the south-east and the north.
Cars are very rare in the rural areas of the country. The available vehicles either belong to international organizations or to the government and military forces. In addition, there are no beasts of burden, such as horses, mules, camels and donkeys that can pull animal driven carts and make the life for women and farmers easier. In general, goods are transported by people, primarily on the heads of women.
In South Sudan, which has some of the worst development indicators in the world, particularly in health and education, eight out of 10 people live on the equivalent of less than $1 a day, six out of 10 have no access to any healthcare, a fifth of all children are acutely malnourished and only 10% of children complete primary school.
The urban population of S. Sudan, including the capital city Juba, consists of a diversity of different socio-economic categories, among which the principal groups are: people working for the Government; small business entrepreneurs; laborers; people without jobs; and internally displaced people and returnees, who often have no land and no job.
War on natural resources: Oil, water, pastures
Oil is the main source of hostility between the Sudan and South Sudan, which continue to spar over the border demarcation.
The news of recent clashes in the disputed area around Sudan’s South Kordofan border state has reignited fears of a winder military conflict between Juba and Khartoum. Both sides blamed each other for the latest outbreak at Heglig (70km deep into Sudan), 100km east of Abyei, whose status was left unresolved when South Sudan gained independence in July 2011 after decades of civil war.
Actually there has been no agreement on how much South Sudan should pay to export its oil through Sudan’s pipelines, so after Khartoum started taking oil in lieu of payment, stealing it, in Juba’s view, South Sudan shut its production. Oil accounts for 98% of the South’s revenue and all export earnings.
South Sudan’s soldiers have seized control of Sudan’s biggest oilfield, near the town of Heglig, on 10/04, raising the prospect of outright war between the two states.
Negotiations that should have been resolved before separation in July 2011 have become bogged down over issues such as debt, citizenship, borders and oil. The issue of oil is particularly difficult to resolve. Sudan’s economy is struggling after South took 75% of total Sudan’s oil production when it seceded.
In addition, resource-based conflicts between various tribes and ethnic groups are created in South Sudan as a result of either scarcity of resources, particularly water and pastures, whereby different ethnic groups may compete for similar resources in the same location, or due to claims and counter claims of land and resources rights. All forms of conflict may result in far more problems beyond food, leading to destruction of homes and livelihood assets, displacement of large numbers of people, restriction of movement of herders and farmers, and in extreme cases may cause the death of human beings, which creates harsh life for women and children who suffer the most in shouldering the livelihood burden of their families.
Uror and Nyirol counties of the Jonglei State, in the north-east of South Sudan, are the most conflict prone areas, because the Nuer tribe population suffer most from water scarcity and the movement of their herds to neighboring Dinka tribe populated areas, where water is available, ignites war between the ethnic groups.
Main Environmental threats
The main environmental threats of the country is because of population increase, return of the refugees after the independence, mismanagement of agricultural lands, deforestation, climate change and various other causes. The main manifestations of the environmental degradation are the following:
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Decreasing water level of rivers and drying of streams due to (upstream) land use changes and irrational water management interventions, such as forest clearing, dams, over-grazing, and fires resulting in increased evaporation and decreased infiltration;
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Decreasing and irregular rainfall due to climate change as a result of external factors, such as global warming, and local environmental changes such as deforestation and wetlands drainage;
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Soil degradation due to unsustainable agriculture as well as poor bush-fire management, leading to decreased ecosystem services and competition with other forms of land use;
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Habitat degradation and fragmentation due to increasing livestock grazing as well as unsustainable and expanding agriculture;
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Soil, air and water pollution due to industrial and agricultural practices not providing for mitigation of environmental impacts;
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Declining biodiversity due to habitat degradation and increased illegal exploitation and poaching of wild animals;
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Resource depletion (e.g. timber, charcoal, water, land, etc.) due to increasing and unsustainable land use resulting from population increase and resettlement
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Pollution because of oil exploration in wetlands, such as in the Sudd wetland;
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Land privatization associated with large scale clearing (land grabbing)
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Oil pollution is a very serious environmental risk, particularly in wetlands where the oilfields of Sudan and South Sudan are found, on the border zone. Oil exploitation sites in Abyei, Unity State and Upper Nile State have experienced oil pollution at exploration/production facilities and around pipelines. Also contamination of the environment has taken place as a result of disposal and release of produced water; from the oil wells.
Climate change mitigation is the main environmental challenge of the country which is manifested through the following signs:
Duration and timing of rain is becoming erratic, rainy seasons are delayed and were shorter during the last 10 years;
Some areas are receiving less rain and the water tables are dropping;
The desert is expanding southward.
Major adaptation activities related to climate change, with regards to agriculture include:
Community-based forest and rangeland management and rehabilitation;
Extension services in sustainable agricultural capacity strengthening for small scale farmers;
Protection and rehabilitation of rangelands, and pastures;
Promotion of the use of effective traditional water conservation practices.
Introduction of new water harvesting techniques, like hafir structures, making use of intermediate technologies; (Establishment of a hafir, a soil based water harvesting structure, is discussed in the adjacent box).
Deterioration of natural resources
The FAO estimates indicate that the current annual loss of forests and other wooded land in South Sudan is at 227,630 hectares. The most important factor responsible for total forest clearing is cultivation. The average small scale farming household uses 0.4 to 1 hectares of land for the cultivation of subsistence crops, which is OK, but large scale agricultural projects clear the forests without leaving tree shelterbelts.
Livestock, particularly cattle, sheep and goats, consume grass and trees. Grazing and browsing is sustainable as long as the re-growth capacity of the vegetation matches the level of use. Goats are responsible for eating the small tree seedlings, which impacts the regeneration of forests.
Large scale bush burnings takes place all over the country, which creates environmental and livelihood problems for the communities. This irrational practice of local herdsmen is done either out of ignorance or in the pretext of cleaning and rejuvenating the grass, which is having significant negative impacts. Because, when burning the dried organic matter on the soil surface, the soil is being exposed to direct sun rays, which reduces its humidity and kills its microorganisms. Burning of the organic matter devoid the top soil from this essential material, which means less soil fertility. In addition, burning of the bush also destroys the habitats of some bird species and other creatures, which means loss of biodiversity. Fires also destroy seeds, rhizomes of perennial grasses and organic contents of the soil. But the biggest blow of fires is given to the young trees that perish in the fires and the rejuvenation cycle of forests break.
However, fires that are initiated for security and pathway opening reasons need to be limited and controlled in order not to be spread unlimitedly.
The conventional sources of energy in South Sudan, for most of its population, are the fuel-wood and charcoal, which are used for cooking and meeting the energy needs of the families. Wood is consumed in huge quantities and the forests get thinner and women keep on walking long distances for securing the wood-fuel. Wood resources are essentially considered as ‘free resources’ that can be used without limitation, resulting in accelerated depletion of forests, erosion of soil and climate change as side effects. There is the urgent need for the demand side management of the wood energy. Large scale use of efficient stoves and other measures are needed in order to limit the quick disappearance of trees.
An institutional and regulatory framework to govern environmental issues in South Sudan is now being developed. But so far, the Government does not have a comprehensive environmental legal framework. Most existing legislations and regulations are sectorial and do not reflect the contemporary environmental issues, and they are poorly enforced. The Government is currently in the process of establishing institutions, policies and legislation in an effort to address sustainable development, natural resources management and other environmental issues.
Ministry of Environment is the lead institution for protection and management of the environment. It is responsible for the development and implementation of the National Environment Policy (2011), which aims at ensuring protection and conservation of South Sudan’s environment.
Livelihoods of rural people
The people of Southern Sudan have been subject to chronic food insecurity. The root causes have been low productivity, rainfall variability and unreliability, recurrent drought and occasional floods, the lack of agricultural extension services and inputs, and insecurity caused by tribal conflicts.
The dominant land use in terms of land occupation is livestock keeping, which is practiced throughout almost all the country. This is the main occupation and livelihood system in rural areas, where 90% of the population lives. Livestock is the main wealth and the food source of the rural folks. During marriages 50 cows are given as dowry to the family of the bride. Agriculture is practiced at subsistence level, where sorghum and maize are the main crops, and some legumes and vegetables are grown during the wet season. In the arid and semi-arid zones no farming is done in the dry season.
Women in South Sudan have outstanding and complementary roles and responsibilities in securing nutritional well-being for all members of the household and the community. Women often play a greater role in ensuring nutrition, food safety and quality, and are often responsible for processing and preparing food for the entire family members. They tend to spend a considerable part of their time and income on household food requirements
Though women constitute the majority of subsistence farmers and perform most of the agricultural tasks, their access to knowledge and training programs regarding effective farming practices and crop production, and linkage to resources is very limited and not formalized as a policy.
Green interventions needed:
Good practices and contingency strategies are needed for halting the degradation of lands and deterioration of the environment in South Sudan. Some typical examples are listed here below:
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Limitation of use of fire for land clearing by elaboration of fire policy in the current policies. Fire is costing South Sudan a great deal in terms of reduced forest production and consequences of climate change.
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Popularize tilapia and other tropical fish farming in ponds.
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Disseminate the use of efficient wood stoves.
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Shifting from goats to sheep rearing in order to avoid destruction of young trees.
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Popularize the practice of agro-forestry.
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Popularize the use of beasts of burden (horses, camels, donkeys) in order to reduce the drudgery of women and realize economic benefits.
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Introduce the use of bulls for tilling the soil, particularly during the planting of sorghum and maize.
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Capacity building through environmental concepts dissemination: awareness raising, environmental education, training of the youth and women, etc
Establishment of water harvesting structures (hafirs) as tools for securing water
Even though South Sudan is rich with water resources, when taking into consideration the great rivers that are crossing its territories, most of the rural communities do not benefit from these water bodies, because pumping of water and its delivery to communities is very costly and beyond their means.
So, rainwater harvesting in hafirs has been identified by the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation as an adequate means for securing the essential water for herders of the dry zones. This will significantly improve their access to water in their own areas and avoid conflicts. Local and state government authorities strongly believe that water related conflict incidences, which have been responsible for food insecurity and which engaged the youth in fighting, would be substantially reduced.
So, now the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation is involved in promoting the establishment of hafirs in the dry zones of rural areas of South Sudan. The Ministry has come up with a standard hafir design with the assistance of GIZ and the World Bank.
The standard capacity of a hafir is 40,000 m3 of water, enough for 10,000 livestock animals to drink during the 6 months of the dry season and about 1000 people to benefit from the hafir water, for household consumption. Average water consumption rate for domestic supply is estimated at 15 liters per person per day (l/p/d). Likewise, for the existing cattle flocks 20 liters per head per day, and for goats and sheeps 7 l/h/d. The most important benefits of a hafir to the local communities include: i) alleviating the severe water shortage for livestock from Nov-April/May, ii) facilitate improved livestock conditions, and iii) reduction in travel time to long distances in search of water, which weaken the animals.
In order to maintain the quality of hafir water, the sites will be fenced and nobody will be allowed to enter the reservoir. Water for human consumption will be pumped out by a hand pump, after proper filtration. This will eliminate the passage of guinea disease to humans. Withdrawal of water for cattle consumption will be done by a solar pump. The pump will feed water to the cattle trough.
Malaria problem can be mitigated by the introduction of Tilapia and other tropical fish species in the water, which will consume the larva of the mosquitoes.
With a catchment area of 4 km2, the first two or three months of the rainy season will fill the hafir of 40,000 m3 capacity.